Gandhi Smriti. Birla House Delhi

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

Gandhi Smriti formerly known as Birla House or Birla Bhavan, is a museum dedicated to Mahatma Gandhi, situated on Tees January Road, in New Delhi, India. It is the location where Mahatma Gandhi spent the last 144 days of his life and was assassinated on January 30, 1948. It was originally the house of the Indian business tycoons, the Birlas. It now houses the Eternal Gandhi Multimedia Museum established in 2005.

The 'Martyr's Column' at the Gandhi Smriti, the spot where Gandhi was assassinated.

It was acquired by the Government of India in 1971 and opened for the public on August 15, 1973, renamed the Gandhi Smriti (or Gandhi Remembrance). The museum in the building houses a number of articles associated with Gandhi's life and death. Visitors can tour the building and grounds, viewing the preserved room where Gandhi lived and the place on the grounds where he was shot while holding his nightly public walk.

The Martyr's Column now marks the place where Gandhi, the "Father of the Nation" was assassinated.

The Gandhi Smriti or Birla House is located at 5 Tees January Marg, a couple of kilometres from the Connaught Place, one of the CBDs of New Delhi.

Outside the house stands a pillar that contains a swastika symbol. The pillar is known as, and is used as, an example of how context can change the ethical nature of information, and the interchangeability of symbols across societies. According to Lester and Koehler, Jr. (2007)[1], "for Hindus and Buddhists, the swastika symbol is a representation of good." The same pillar also contains the Sanskrit symbol for the meditation sound, Om. Wallace C. Koehler, Jr. presents a photograph of the pillar on page 347 of the highly regarded information science text, Fundamentals of Information Studies, Second Edition, with June Lester.

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

gandhi smriti, birla house delhi india

About Humayun's Tomb, Delhi-India

A Beautiful View from Front of Humayun's Tomb, Delhi-India

About Humayun's Tomb, Delhi-India

""This tomb, built in 1570, is of particular cultural significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent. It inspired several major architectural innovations, culminating in the construction of the Taj Mahal.""

Exemplifying the formative stage of the Mughal structural style, Humayun's Tomb stands as a landmark in the development of Mughal architecture, and also represents the earliest extant specimen of the Mughal scheme of the garden tomb, with causeways and channels. It is a well-developed specimen of the double-domed elevation with kiosks on a grand scale. This building tradition culminated in the Taj Mahal, constructed a century later. Despite being the first standardized example of this style, Humayun's Tomb is an architectural achievement of the highest order.

Humayun's Tomb

The tomb of Humayun, second Mughal Emperor of India, was built by his widow, Biga Begum (Hajji Begum), in 1569-70, 14 years after his death, at a cost of 1.5 million rupees. The architect was Mirak Mirza Ghiyath. It was later used for the burial of various members of the ruling family and contains some 150 graves. It has aptly been described as the necropolis of the Mughal dynasty.

The tomb itself is in the centre of a large garden, laid out in char baah (four-fold) style, with pools joined by channels. The main entrance is on the south side, and there is another entrance on the west side. A pavilion and a bath are located in the centre of the eastern and northern walls respectively. The mausoleum itself is on a high, wide, terraced platform with small arched cells along the sides.

In plan it is an irregular octagon with four long and four short sides. It is surmounted by a 42.5 m high double dome clad with marble flanked by decorative pillared kiosks (chhatris). The middle of each side is deeply recessed by large arched vaults with a series of smaller ones set into the face. The interior is a large octagonal chamber with vaulted roof compartments interconnected by galleries or corridors. This octagonal plan is repeated on the second storey. The structure is of dressed stone clad in red sandstone with white and black in laid marble borders. Within the enceinte to the south-east of Humayun's Tomb there is a fine square tomb of 1590-91, known as the Barber's Tomb.

The tomb and its surrounding structures are substantially in their original state, and interventions in the present century have been minimal and of high quality.

Garden at About Humayun's Tomb

The importance of Humayun's Tomb in the evolution of Mughal architecture is great. It is the first of a long series of dynastic tombs and innovative in a number of ways, notably by virtue of the fact that it introduced the garden tomb to the subcontinent. Humayun had travelled widely in the Islamic world, notably in Persia and central Asia, and brought back with him ideas that were applied by the architect of his tomb, under the direction of his widow, in this tomb. The tomb has been respected throughout its history and so has retained its original form and purpose intact. Subsequent interventions have been aimed at preserving this character.

About Misra Yantra in Jantar Mantar, Delhi Observatory : Jantar Mantar

The Misra Yantra is located in the northwestern corner of the site. It is a relatively small instrument, and may have been built by Jai Singh's son, Madho Singh (reg. 1751-65) sometime between 1759 and 1799, as the instrument is not mentioned in Jai Singh's accounts. The entire instrument measures about 25 meters across (east-west) and 12 meters north-south. 

Misra Yantra in Jantar Mantar, Delhi Observatory

The Misra Yantra is organized symmetrically about a wall whose upper edge is inclined to the horizontal plane at the same angle as the hypotenuse of the Samrat Yantra. This wall is formed of two walls flanking a staircase used to access the top; while smaller, it is similar to the Samrat Yantra gnomon. The wall is 8 meters high, and and its base stretches for ca. 11 meters. A pair of semicircular scales are located on each side of the gnomon, with their centers located on the hypotenuse of the central wall. These four scales are marble strips, .5 meters wide and supported on individual curved walls. A staircase, about 1 meter long, runs between each pair of scales. The semicircles on the eastern side are inclined at angles corresponding to the meridians of Greenwich and Zurich. Like the hypotenuse, their inclination is upwards from south towards the north. The semicircles on the western side are mirror images of the eastern pair, and correspond to meridians of places in East Asia. This may be coincidental, as the symmetry of the instruments appears to have been the overriding determinant of their inclination. The calibrations on the marble scales can be read by climbing either the staircases located along the outer edge of the curved walls or the staircases in between them. Two doorways, about a meter wide and spanned by segmental arches, puncture the outer curved walls on either side of the gnomon to enable access to the inner staircases. The instrument has three additional quadrants, two on the west and one on the eastern side of the gnomon. 

About Rama Yantra in Jantar Mantar Delhi, Delhi Observatory

Rama Yantra in Jantar Mantar, Delhi Observatory

The Rama Yantra is located towards the southern edge of the site. It is composed of two complementary hollow cylindrical structures that are open to the sky and positioned close to one other along the north-south axis. The instruments are sunk two meters into the ground, so that the observer has to descend into the instrument to take the readings. Each cylinder is prescribed by a three-tiered circular wall, which steps back gradually from the periphery with every rising tier. The wall is about a meter thick at the bottom, narrowing to ca. 60 centimeters at the top, and is punctured at regular intervals of about a meter with keel-arched openings. The openings in the upper two tiers are about 1.5 meters tall and 1 meter tall in the lowest tier. The curved perforated walls describing the perimeter of each cylinder act as thresholds. Each instrument has a vertical pole marking the centre of the cylinder, which is about a meter and a half in diameter, constructed in stone and covered in plaster. The height of the wall and the pillar is equal to the inner radius of the cylinder. Inside the cylinder, a raised red sandstone floor supported on masonry arches is positioned at a height of one meter from the ground. It is divided into equal sectors radiating out from the central pillar. Every alternate sector has been removed to allow access for taking the readings on the solid sectors. The sectors and openings in one cylinder are the inverse of the other. Like the Jai Prakash Yantra, if the two cylinders were superimposed, they would form a complete cylinder. This division of a single instrument into two complementary units was done mainly to facilitate the readings for celestial bodies at night.

About Samrat Yantra in Jantar Mantar, Delhi Observatory : Jantar Mantar

The Samrat Yantra, jantar mantar, delhi

Samrat Yantra or the king of instruments is the largest and the most imposing device in Jantar Mantar, the observatory of Delhi. It is used to measure the accurate time of day and also to measure the declination of the sun. It consists of a triangular indicator with the hypotenuse parallel to earth’s axis.  Built by Jai Singh II of Jaipur, Jantar Mantar is also called Delhi Observatory. It is located in the Parliament Street near Connaught Place. This observatory represents one of the last links with the old school of astronomy.

About Jantar Mantar Delhi, India

front view of jantar-mantar-delhi-india

Jantar Mantar is very popular among tourists and the people of Delhi. The structure is another great masterpiece of Indian architecture which shows the scientific acumen of ancient India. Jantar Manter is situated at Parliament Street, very close to Connaught Place. Jantar Mantar is also called Delhi Observatory. It is maintained by the Jaipur government because it was built by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II of Jaipur in 1710 A.D.

Jantar_Mantar_Delhi_India

It is a remarkable structure which consists of fourteen geometric devices used for measuring time, forecasting weather changes, predicting behaviour of planets and finding extraterrestrial altitude. All these devices are fixed structures and point to a specific direction. The largest device or instrument is the Samrat Jantar which is 90 feet high and its shadow is plotted in such a manner so that is shows the exact time of the day. Any weather change or the onset of monsoons can be ascertained by the Hindu Chhatri, which is a small domed structure. 

Jantar_Mantar_Delhi_India

The whole structure is made of stone and marble with each of then having an engraved astronomical scale. Jantar Mantar finally got the status of a national monument in 1948. It has always attracted architects, historians and scientists from all over the world. 

Maharaja Jai Singh was a fanatical astronomer himself who studied various works from Hindu, Muslim and European astronomy. He had the perception that the tables used by the pundits were deceptive and the actual planetary changes and predictions of eclipses would not have been possible through these measuring parameters. So he thought that he would find an improved and efficient means through which exact prediction could be made. It was his own inspiration and foresightedness that gave shape to such an instrument. He built other observatories at Jaipur, Ujjain, Benares and Mathura to have an exact calculation. It took almost seven years before the whole structure was fully operational because he wanted to be fully satisfied with the accuracy of the instruments at Jantar Mantar.

Some of the major instruments at Jantar Mantar are: 

• The Samrat Yantra 'Prince of Dials' (the largest device)
• The Ram Yantra - two circular buildings
• The Jai Prakash
• The Misra Yantra (north-west to the Samrat Yantra)
• Pillars on the southwest of Mishra Yantra used to measure the shortest and longest days of the year.The Samrat Yantra measured the accurate time of the day. It also measured the declination of the sun which can be seen by the shadow moving around the structure.  

Samrat Yantra in Jantar Mantar, Delhi Observatory : Jantar Mantar

The Samrat Yantra, jantar mantar, delhi

Samrat Yantra or the king of instruments is the largest and the most imposing device in Jantar Mantar, the observatory of Delhi. It is used to measure the accurate time of day and also to measure the declination of the sun. It consists of a triangular indicator with the hypotenuse parallel to earth’s axis.  Built by Jai Singh II of Jaipur, Jantar Mantar is also called Delhi Observatory. It is located in the Parliament Street near Connaught Place. This observatory represents one of the last links with the old school of astronomy.

Rama Yantra in Jantar Mantar, Delhi Observatory : Jantar Mantar

Rama Yantra in Jantar Mantar, Delhi Observatory

The Rama Yantra is located towards the southern edge of the site. It is composed of two complementary hollow cylindrical structures that are open to the sky and positioned close to one other along the north-south axis. The instruments are sunk two meters into the ground, so that the observer has to descend into the instrument to take the readings. Each cylinder is prescribed by a three-tiered circular wall, which steps back gradually from the periphery with every rising tier. The wall is about a meter thick at the bottom, narrowing to ca. 60 centimeters at the top, and is punctured at regular intervals of about a meter with keel-arched openings. The openings in the upper two tiers are about 1.5 meters tall and 1 meter tall in the lowest tier. The curved perforated walls describing the perimeter of each cylinder act as thresholds. Each instrument has a vertical pole marking the centre of the cylinder, which is about a meter and a half in diameter, constructed in stone and covered in plaster. The height of the wall and the pillar is equal to the inner radius of the cylinder. Inside the cylinder, a raised red sandstone floor supported on masonry arches is positioned at a height of one meter from the ground. It is divided into equal sectors radiating out from the central pillar. Every alternate sector has been removed to allow access for taking the readings on the solid sectors. The sectors and openings in one cylinder are the inverse of the other. Like the Jai Prakash Yantra, if the two cylinders were superimposed, they would form a complete cylinder. This division of a single instrument into two complementary units was done mainly to facilitate the readings for celestial bodies at night.

Misra Yantra in Jantar Mantar, Delhi Observatory : Jantar Mantar

The Misra Yantra is located in the northwestern corner of the site. It is a relatively small instrument, and may have been built by Jai Singh's son, Madho Singh (reg. 1751-65) sometime between 1759 and 1799, as the instrument is not mentioned in Jai Singh's accounts. The entire instrument measures about 25 meters across (east-west) and 12 meters north-south. 

Misra Yantra in Jantar Mantar, Delhi Observatory

The Misra Yantra is organized symmetrically about a wall whose upper edge is inclined to the horizontal plane at the same angle as the hypotenuse of the Samrat Yantra. This wall is formed of two walls flanking a staircase used to access the top; while smaller, it is similar to the Samrat Yantra gnomon. The wall is 8 meters high, and and its base stretches for ca. 11 meters. A pair of semicircular scales are located on each side of the gnomon, with their centers located on the hypotenuse of the central wall. These four scales are marble strips, .5 meters wide and supported on individual curved walls. A staircase, about 1 meter long, runs between each pair of scales. The semicircles on the eastern side are inclined at angles corresponding to the meridians of Greenwich and Zurich. Like the hypotenuse, their inclination is upwards from south towards the north. The semicircles on the western side are mirror images of the eastern pair, and correspond to meridians of places in East Asia. This may be coincidental, as the symmetry of the instruments appears to have been the overriding determinant of their inclination. The calibrations on the marble scales can be read by climbing either the staircases located along the outer edge of the curved walls or the staircases in between them. Two doorways, about a meter wide and spanned by segmental arches, puncture the outer curved walls on either side of the gnomon to enable access to the inner staircases. The instrument has three additional quadrants, two on the west and one on the eastern side of the gnomon. 

Old Fort Purana Qila Delhi

History

Built by the great ruler Sher Shah Suri in the 16th century A.D, the legendaryOld Fort today lies in ruins. The Old Fort or the Purana Qila is also known as the 'Qila-i-kuhna masjid' and has survived the ravages of time. The citadel is a perfect example of Lodi style of architecture. Infact its architecture seems to be a fine blend of the Hindu, Muslim and Afghan style. The fort boasts of awe- inspiring arches and domes along with three double-storied main gates sporting 'chhatris' on its roof top which are found in the north, south and west directions.

The Old Fort is located quite close to Humayun’s Tomb and India Gate. It is believed that the construction of the fort was started by Humayun, one of the greatest rulers of his dynasty. But later on Sher Shah defeated Humayun, took over the citadel and completed the structure. Also there is a small lake near the Old Fort which caters to the boating facilities for the tourists.

The Fort is made up of red sandstone along with the contrast of marbles and the walls of the fort are 18 metres high. The Purana Quila has three majestic gates - The Humayun Darwaza, the Bara Darwaza and the 

Talaqi Darwaza. 

The three gates are double storied and built with red sandstone. The Humayun Darwaza and the Bara Darwaza were the two gates that were only meant for entering the fort. Today only the Bara Darwaza is opened for entry. The Talaqui Darwaza is located to the northern side of the fort and entry was prohibited through the Talaqi Darwaza as the name suggests. Talaqi means ‘forbidden'. 

The Old Fort houses a number of amazing buildings which include Quila Kuhna Masjid and the Sher Mandal. Both were built by Sher Shah in a grand style. The masjid is built in a fusion of marble and sandstone. There is a prayer hall in the masjid and has five doorways with horse shoe shaped arches. 

The Sher Mandal is now an observatory. It was designed for entertainment purpose. The structure and style of the building suggests its architectural magnificence. Once upon a time the Sher Mahal was used by Sher Shah as his own library.

There is a museum at the gate of the Purana Quila which houses important artifacts belonging to the Mughal era. The Old Fort is located at the ancient site of Indraprastha and is believed that there were many instances which were from the Purana Qila in the famous Hindu epic Mahabharata. Potteries have also been found dates back to the days of Mahabharata. The Archeological excavation of the site is proof to the fact that civilization existed here even in 1000 BC. 

This old yet wonderful fort has been a witness to some of the greatest events in the history of India. A visit to the imposing and inspiring Purana Qila should be on your itinerary.

You must not miss the Sound and Light Show at the Old Fort. The show presents the history of the Delhi Old Fort which dates back to 5000 years. The most amazing part is that the nine pools of water come alive in the light which is captivating!

Best time to visit

The best time to visit Delhi is between October and March, when the weather is very pleasant. Most cultural events take place in winter and Delhi is socially very active. By February the flowers are in bloom and the city is really quite pretty then. Summers are searing hot and dry, so do come prepared for the weather.

Trivia

It is believed that Sher Shah could not complete the construction of the Old Fort and it was finished by Humayun. Thus, the well known gate of the fort which is the southern gate is known as Humayun Darwaza.

Timing

You can visit the Old Fort all year round but be sure of the opening and the closing time. The Fort is open on all days of the week from 8:00 am to 6:00 pm.

India Gate Delhi

india gate, Delhi, India

India Gate, primarily a memorial to the Unknown Soldier was Designed by Lutyens. The 42 metre high structure is a war memorial in honour of the soldiers who died during the world war. The impressive structure from where stretch massive lush green lawns has an eternal flame (Amar Jawan Jyoti) to honour the memory of the unknown soldiers. India Gate prominently located in the vicinity of Rastrapati Bhavan is a major crowd puller during the hot summer evenings of Delhi by virtue of its lush green lawns. 

India Gate of Delhi is a 42 meter high gateway situated at Rajpath, New Delhi. Also famous as the 'All India War Memorial', the India Gate was designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, who designed the New Delhi city. The base stone of India Gate of Delhi was laid by the Duke of Connaught. The structure of India Gate of Delhi was completed in February 1921.

India Gate in Delhi at nearby is a famous recreation for the local people of Delhi in summer evenings and accepted picnic spot in winter months. The trendy India Gate of Delhi is situated at the heart of the capital, and easily accessible by the tourists. India Gate of Delhi lies at the east end of Janpath that leads to the Rashtrapati Bhawan.

india gate, Delhi, India

India Gate of Delhi presents a variety of entertainment. The whole day can be spent by watching monkey presentation, riding a camel, viewing the soap bubbles that is blown all over the lawns of the India gate of Delhi, playing with balloons and more. In the evening, India Gate of Delhi is busy with evening walkers as well as tourists and movable vendors. You can feel the classic Indian fast foods, 'fruit chaat', 'bhelpuri', 'chana jor garam', 'dal ka pakodas', aerated drinks from the arcade of vendors stationed there.

India Gate of Delhi is a majestic high arch, 42 meters high, built as a memorial to the Indian soldiers killed in the World War I. Under it burns an eternal flame. From the bottom of the arch one can get a good view of the Rashtrapati Bhawan of Delhi.

india gate, Delhi, India

India Gate, an "Arc-de-Triomphe" likes Archway in the middle of a crossroad. Almost similar to its French counterpart war memorial. It commemorates the 70,000 Indian soldiers who lost their lives fighting for the British Army during the World War and bears the names of more than 13,516 British and Indian soldiers killed in the Northwestern Frontier in the Afghan war of 1919. 

The foundation stone was laid by His Royal Highness, the Duke of Connaught in 1921 and was designed by Edwin Lutyens. The monument was dedicated to the nation 10 years later by the then Viceroy, Lord Irwin. Another memorial, Amar Jawan Jyoti was added much later, after India got its freedom. It is in the form of a flame that burns day and night under the arch to remind the nation of soldiers who laid down their lives in the Indo-Pakistan War of December 1971. 

india gate, Delhi, India

The entire arch stands on a low base of red Bharatpur stone and rises in stages to a huge molding, beneath, which are inscribed Imperial sons. Above on both sides is inscribed INDIA, flanked by MCM and to the right, XIX. The shallow domed bowl at the top was intended to be filled with burning oil on anniversaries but this is rarely done. 

Surrounding the imposing structure is a large expanse of lush green lawns, which is a popular picnic spot. One can see hoards of people moving about the brightly lit area and on the lawns on summer evenings. 

This solemn monument was built in memory of the 90,000 Indian soldiers who died in World War I. It was built in 1931, designed by Lutyens, and was originally called the All India War Memorial. The names of the soldiers are inscribed on the walls of the arc of the gate. Later in 1971, an eternal flame was lit here in memory of the unknown soldiers who died in the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war. India Gate stands at the end of Rajpath, and is a popular picnic site especially during hot summer evenings. At night, the Gate is brightly lit and the fountains near the Gate are lit with coloured lights. The sight is delightful.

Red Fort, Delhi India

About Red Fort

Red Fort, Delhi India

Red Fort or Lal Quila as it is more popularly known is a masterpiece of architecture and one of the most haunting spots for tourists from both India and abroad. This colossal fort on the banks of the river Yamuna, built by Shahjahan as the citadel of the 17th Century Delhi is a significant link between the past and the present, for it is from here that the prime minister of India addresses the people on the Independence Day (August 15th). 

 Mughal Emperor Shahjahan started construction of the Red Fort in 1638, which was completed in 1648. The fort contains - halls of public and private audience, domed and arched marble palaces, plush private apartments, a mosque and elaborately designed gardens. Even today, the fort continues to be an impressive evidence to Mughal grandeur.

e Architecture

Red Fort's inner view//looking awsome

The Red Fort with thick red sandstone walls, bulging with turrets and bastions is one of the largest and oldest monument in Delhi India. The Fort rises above a wide dry moat in the northeast corner of the original city of Shahjahanabad, now Old Delhi. Its walls extend from 2 kms and vary in height from 18 m on the river side to 33 m on the city side. 

The Fort also houses the Diwan-i-Am or the Hall of Public Audiences where the Emperor would sit and hear complaints of the common folks. The Diwan-i-Khas is the hall of private audiences where the Emperor held private meetings. This hall is made of marble and its centre-piece used to be the Peacock Throne, which was carried away to Iran by Nadir Shah in 1739.

Red Fort, Delhi India

The other attractions within this monument are the Royal Baths or hammams, the Shahi Burj, which used to be Shahjahan's private working area and the Moti Masjid or the Pearl Mosque, built by Aurangzeb for his personal use. The Rang Mahal or the "Palace of Colours" housed the Emperor's wives and mistresses. This palace was crowned with gilded turrets, delicately painted and decorated with an intricate mosaic of mirrors, and a ceiling overlaid with gold and silver that was reflected in a central pool in the marble floor.

The Iron Pillar at Delhi India

The Iron Pillar, Delhi India

The Delhi iron pillar is testimony to the high level of skill achieved by ancient Indian iron smiths in the extraction and processing of iron. The iron pillar at Delhi has attracted the attention of archaeologists and corrosion technologists as it has withstood corrosion for the last 1600 years. The several theories which have been proposed to explain its superior corrosion resistance can be broadly classified into two categories: the environmental and the material theories. Proponents of the environmental theories state that the mild climate of Delhi is responsible for the corrosion resistance of the Delhi iron pillar. It is known that the relative humidity at Delhi does not exceed 70% for significant periods of time in the year, which therefore results in very mild corrosion of the pillar.

On the other hand, several investigators have stressed the importance of the material of construction as the primary cause for the pillar's corrosion resistance. The ideas proposed in this regard are the relatively pure composition of the iron used, presence of Phosphorus (P) and absence of Sulphur/Magnesium in the iron, its slag-enveloped metal grain structure, and passivity enhancement in the presence of slag particles.

Other theories to explain the corrosion resistance are also to be found in the literature like the mass metal effect, initial exposure to an alkaline and ammoniacal environment, residual stresses resulting from the surface finishing operation, freedom from sulphur contamination both in the metal and in the air, and surface coatings provided to the pillar after manufacture (barffing and slag coating) and during use (coating with clarified butter).

The Iron Pillar, Delhi India

That the material of construction may be the important factor in determining the corrosion resistance of ancient Indian iron is attested by the presence of ancient massive iron objects located in areas where the relative humidity is high for significant periods in the year (for example, the iron beams in the Surya temple at Konarak in coastal Orissa and the iron pillar at Mookambika temple at Kollur situated in the Kodachadri Hills on the western coast). It is, therefore, obvious that the ancient Indians, especially from the time of the Guptas (300-500 AD), produced iron that was capable of withstanding corrosion. This is primarily due to the high P content of the iron produced during these times. The addition of P was intentional as iron produced during earlier times does not show the presence of P.

To understand the precise reason for the corrosion resistance of the Delhi iron pillar, we analysed the composition of the rust on a Gupta period corrosion resistant iron clamp and also the rust on the Delhi iron pillar. Archaeometallurgical studies form a small component of our research activities. It is clear that referring to the Delhi iron pillar as rust-less is misleading as the iron pillar derives its corrosion resistance from the passive surface film (i.e. rust) that forms on the surface. We undertook a detailed rust analysis using modern sophisticated characterization techniques like Mössbauer spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). We summarize below some of the exciting results of our study. The present study also provides valuable insight into the corrosion resistance of steels.

Microstructure

The Iron Pillar, Delhi India

The microstructure of the iron of the Delhi iron pillar is typical of wrought iron. Iron was produced in ancient times by solid-state reduction of iron ore using charcoal and after the reduction process, the slag particles in iron were squeezed out by hammering. This invariably resulted in the presence of slag particles and unreduced iron oxide in the microstructure. We have earlier shown by theoretical mixed potential analysis and experimental potentiodynamic polarization studies (conducted on ancient iron) that the presence of slag particles could enhance passivity in these ancient irons containing P. However, the role of P in the passivation process was not understood. The characterization of the Delhi iron pillar rust has provided clear ideas about the passive film formation process on the Delhi iron pillar.

Rust Analysis

The FTIR spectrum proved the presence of g-FeOOH, a-FeOOH and d-FeOOH. The d-FeOOH was the major component of the rust as the peak was of relatively larger height compared to the others. An interesting result from the FTIR spectrum was that there was a distinct signal from the phase FePO4.2H2O and the shoulder from this phase was also identifiable. Therefore, the results of the FTIR study indicated that the constituents of the scale were g, a and d-FeOOH, in addition to a small amount of FePO4. In order to further understand the nature of the rust, the Mössbauer spectrum obtained from the rust in the transmission mode was analysed. The presence of g-FeOOH, a-FeOOH and d-FeOOH in superparamagnetic form was confirmed. The very fine particle size of these oxyhydroxides was also confirmed. The presence of iron phosphate was also confirmed. Finally, the rust was also composed of magnetite that was incorporated with some ions.

The Iron Pillar, Delhi India

About Qutub Minar, Delhi-India

Qutub Minar Delhi Tourism

Qutub Minar is the pride of Delhi. The tall minaret was constructed in 1192 byQutab-ud-din Aibak, and later completed by his successor Iltutmish. The soaring conical tower is an exquisite example of Indo-Islamic Afghan architecture.

Qutub Minar is a World Heritage Site and has survived the ravages of time impressively. The Minar of Delhi is surrounded by a lush green garden, which is an ideal leisurely place for visitors. Qutab Minar is the favourite destination of tourists. It is India's most visited monument attracting around 3.9 million visitors every year.

Each of the 5 storeys and tower of Qutub Minar has unique designs.

It was hit by lightening couple of times and was damaged. The subsequent rulers repaired it. Thus it is standing mightily as it was before till date.

Qutab Minar is a great masterpiece of Mughal architecture. The base of the Qutub Minar measures 14.32 meters and the top of the structure measures 2.75 meters. The bird eye's view of Delhi city from the top is amazing. The base of first storey has alternate angular and circular flutings, the second one is round. The third storey of the Qutub Minar has angular flutings. The balconies projecting out heighten the beauty of the Minar.

The tower is so high that around 379 steps are needed to be climbed to reach the top. Another taller tower adjacent to Qutub Minar is named Alai Minar which is somewhat tilted in one direction.

The verses from the holy Qur'an are carved on sandstone walls of Qutub Minar. This monument serves the purpose of calling people for prayer in the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. This is a tower of victory, a monument that signify the might of Islam, or a tower for keeping a check for defense.

Tourist attractions near Qutub Minar
Qutub Minar has some adjoining structures that lend shine of some of its fame. The Qutub complex houses the iron wonder nearby. The Iron Pillar is one of the metallurgical interests of the world. It is a thing to study as well as famous tourist destination. Traditionally people believe that if anyone standing in front of pillar with his back towards the column can encircle it with their arms, all his wishes will be fulfilled. Government has built a fence around it for safety. An earthquake damaged top two floors of the minar during the rule of Firoz Shah; but was repaired by Firoz Shah himself. He built marble pavilions here. In the year 1505, earthquake again damaged it and was repaired by Sikandar Lodi. Once again the minar faced earthquake in the year 1794, then Major Smith refurbished the affected parts of the minar and replaced Firoz Shah's pavilion with his own pavilion. This pavilion was again removed in the year 1848 by Lord Hardinge. Now it can be seen lying between the Dak Bungalow and the Minar in the garden.Many natural conditions weathered the minar but it is still standing with all the might owing to time to time renovations and reinstated and renovated by the respective rulers.

Qutub Minar, delhi india

Qutub Minar, delhi india

Qutub Minar, delhi india

Qutub Minar Delhi Tourism

History of Delhi

The Indian capital city of Delhi has a long history, including a history as the capital of several empires. The earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya Period; since then, the site has seen continuous settlement. In 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was discovered near Srinivaspuri, which is nearNoida. Two sandstone pillars inscribed with the edicts of Ashoka were brought to byFiruz Shah Tughluq in the 14th century. The famous Iron pillar near the Qutub Minar was commissioned by the emperor Kumara Gupta I of the Gupta dynasty (320-540) and transplanted to Delhi during the 10th century. Eight major cities have been situated in the Delhi area. The first five cities were in the southern part of present-day Delhi. Though settlements have been dated to have been taking place in Delhi for millennia, there is no record to stand by that claim. Delhi is generally considered a close to 5000-year old city, as per Ancient Indian text The Mahabharata, since the first ever mention of the city is found in this religious scripture. Therefore, except the scripture, archaeological evidences to book the city's Ancient history are as good as nought. As a result, Delhi's Ancient history finds no records and this period may be regarded as the lost period of its history. Extensive coverage of Delhi's history begins with the onset of the Delhi Sultanatein the 12th century. Since then, Delhi had been the seat of Islamic and British rulers untilIndia's independence in 1947.

The core of Delhi's tangible heritage is Islamic, spanning over 7 centuries of Islamic rule over the city, with some British-styled architectures and zones in Lutyens' Delhi dating to the British rule in India. Whatever records exist of Delhi- in the form of scriptures or archaeological evidences, they crown Delhi as the Capital city of some empire or the other all through, with minor random breaks in between, making Delhi one of the longest serving Capitals and one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world^[1][2]. It is considered to be a city built, destroyed and rebuilt several times, as outsiders who successfully invaded the Indian Subcontinent would ransack the existing capital city in Delhi, and those who came to conquer and stay would be so impressed by the city's strategic location as to make it their capital and rebuild it in their own way.